Istanbul, which was besieged by the Ottoman Empire seven times before, was conquered on May 29, 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Fatih Sultan Mehmet (II. Mehmet), who was only 21 years old. The Conquest of Istanbul took place as a result of an intense 53-day siege that started on April 6, 1453 and continued until May 29, 1453. The conquest ended the 1058-year existence of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and made the Ottoman Empire an empire. Istanbul, which was designated as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, has played an important role since this date.
The Conquest of Istanbul led to the end of the Byzantine Empire, which was the continuation of the Roman Empire, and immigration from the Christian world began in the city. This event also symbolizes the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Age. The Conquest of Istanbul, which is also of great military importance, is a turning point in which the city walls and city walls that protected the cities against invasion and attacks throughout history were neutralized. The use of black powder by the Ottoman Army enabled them to achieve great success in demolishing the walls. This technological superiority made it possible to seize Istanbul by overcoming the walls during the siege.
Reasons for the Conquest of Istanbul
The conquest of Istanbul was necessary for the Ottoman Empire for many reasons. The first reason for these requirements is that Hz. “Constantinople will certainly be conquered,” mentioned in a hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (saas). What a great commander the commander who conquered him, what a great soldier the soldier who conquered him.” to attain the gospel.
There were also political reasons for the conquest of Istanbul. The Byzantine Empire was causing internal turmoil by provoking the Ottoman princes. There were throne fights and conflicts among the princes. The geographical position of Byzantium prevented the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in Rumelia. There was no connection between Anatolian and Rumelian lands. With the capture of Istanbul, this obstacle would be removed and the military transition between Anatolia and Rumelia would be easier.
By provoking the Christians in Europe, Byzantium was preparing the ground for the Crusades. At the same time, he was trying to disrupt the Turkish unity by provoking the Anatolian principalities against the Ottoman Empire. Economic reasons also required the conquest of Istanbul. With the conquest of Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire would have an advantageous position in land and sea trade. He would also be able to dominate a branch of the Silk Road. When these reasons came together, the conquest of Istanbul would be an important step for the Ottoman Empire in terms of strategic, political and economic aspects.
History of the Conquest of Istanbul
Fatih Sultan Mehmet was only 19 years old when he took the throne in 1451. In Europe, there were ideas predicted by many that the young sultan would not succeed and would be defeated by the Christian powers in the Balkans and the Aegean. The calm attitude of Mehmet the Conqueror towards Europe supported these thoughts. However, the differences between thoughts and behaviors were ignored.
With the expansion of the Ottoman lands in the region, II. When Mehmet came to the throne, Istanbul was under siege. The Byzantine Empire tried to complicate the siege by stretching the Golden Horn and strengthened its navy. He also used a defensive tool called grejuva. Grejuva was known as an unquenchable beam of fire on water and was used effectively in land and naval warfare.
During the siege, food and ammunition stores were reinforced, the number of guards was increased with soldiers from various countries, and the city walls were strengthened. Three galleys and 200 soldiers, along with ammunition, were also sent by the Papacy, and information came that 30 ships were being prepared for the expedition. In January 1453, aid came with two ships, with 700 soldiers led by the Genoese commander Giovanni Giustiniani. Emperor Constantine appointed Giustiniani as commander-in-chief and was promised to give him the island of Lemnos in case of Byzantine victory.
The main element of the Byzantine defense plan was the city walls of Istanbul. These walls were not only protected against attacks from the land, but also completely surrounded by walls on the sea side of the city. The area known today as Sarayburnu was completely isolated from the sea.
Preparations for the Siege of Istanbul
During the siege process, the Ottomans produced bulk cannons to use heavy artillery. One of them was the falcon cannon made by an engineer named Urban, who was kidnapped from Byzantine dungeons. The single ball of this cannon weighed approximately 550 kilograms and was 8 meters long and 2.5 meters in circumference. In order to completely cut off the sea connection of Istanbul and to prevent outside aid from coming to the city during the siege, II. Mehmet decided that Rumeli Fortress should be built opposite Anadolu Hisarı.
There are different opinions about the total number of soldiers of the Ottoman army. According to Hammer, there were 250,000 soldiers, according to Barbaro 160,000, and according to Sfrantzes and Dukas 200,000. During the siege, preparations were made for the Ottoman Navy to provide support from the sea. There are different opinions about the exact presence of the fleet placed under the command of Baltaoğlu Süleyman Pasha; Dukas stated 300, and Georgios Francis stated 160. Before the siege, some castles and towns around the city were captured by 10,000 soldiers led by Karaca Pasha.
Conquest of Istanbul
On April 6, 1453, the Ottoman land army was positioned in front of the walls in a position extending from the Golden Horn to the Marmara. The suburbs around the city were destroyed by the Ottoman army before the attack began. The points where the balls will be placed and the weakest parts of the walls were determined. Two days after the cannons were deployed, the Ottoman Navy under the command of Baltaoğlu Süleyman Pasha captured Büyükada (Prinkipos) and Antigoni on Burgaz Island, and also took control of a Byzantine fortress in Tarabya.
After the balls are placed II. Mehmet sent his vizier Veli Mahmud Pasha to Emperor Constantine and demanded the surrender of the city. Constantine stated that he was sworn to protect the city, but said he could offer to pay taxes. On April 12, 1453, Ottoman artillery fire began. These cannons, which were considered powerful at the time, were making a great noise and breaking the morale of the defense. Ottoman artillery was loaded in about two hours, so artillery fire was not frequent. II. Mehmet wanted it to be fired more often, and as a result, a ball exploded and shattered, and the master Urban and those around him lost their lives. Although a repair shop was established in the camp for the maintenance of the cannons, it was not possible to repair the cannon, which broke down due to Urban’s death. Ottoman artillery fire continued until April 18.
On April 18, the Ottoman central army succeeded in making breaches in the first and second walls near the Bayrampaşa Stream. II. By Mehmet’s order, the ditch in front of the walls was filled with stones and sandbags. The Ottoman army launched a night attack and war towers were built to support the attack. However, the night attack was not successful; The marching towers were set on fire by the greed, and the Ottoman soldiers climbing the walls met with a staunch defense.
In the same days, the Ottomans also launched a naval attack; The Ottoman navy, which collapsed in front of the Golden Horn on April 15, 1453, had to retreat, unable to break the chain, due to the resistance of the Byzantine and allied navies. The failure of both offensives and the retreat of the naval offensive caused morale to rise on the Byzantine side. The defense forces were even more motivated to repel the attacks of the Ottoman army. During the days of the siege, the Byzantine defense intensified and the walls were further strengthened.
The Ottoman army faced difficulties because the walls could not be crossed and its connection to the sea could not be cut. II. Mehmet decided to develop more effective strategies to speed up the siege. The Ottomans began digging underground tunnels against the city walls. The purpose of these tunnels was to pass under the walls and weaken the defenses inside.
In early May, the Ottomans launched a major offensive. Intense artillery fire and siege towers were used against the city walls. The war continued with great violence and both sides suffered heavy losses. The Ottomans tried to infiltrate with a few troops that managed to get to the walls, but the Byzantines continued to defend decisively.
Finally, on May 29, 1453, the Ottoman army launched a major offensive and succeeded in breaking through the walls. The Ottoman soldiers who entered the city advanced despite the intensity of the war and the resistance. Istanbul finally fell into the hands of the Ottomans, and the 1058-year reign of the Byzantine Empire came to an end.
The conquest of Istanbul was a major turning point for the Ottoman Empire. This victory consolidated the Ottoman power and expansion goals. At the same time, Istanbul’s strategic location enabled the Ottomans to act as a bridge between Europe and Asia. While this conquest historically marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Age, it also left a deep impact on Byzantine culture and heritage.
